From Opportunity to Experienced Inclusion: Participation, Belonging, and Agency of Students with Disabilities in Vietnamese Lower-Secondary Classroom

Abstract

Placement in a mainstream classroom does not establish that students with disabilities participate meaningfully or experience belonging. This convergent mixed-methods study examined how participation opportunities, peer relations, accessibility, support, and belonging were experienced in three Vietnamese lower-secondary schools. Data collected between June 18 and August 20, 2026 comprised 100 valid teacher surveys, interviews with 14 students with disabilities and 10 teachers, and 16 classroom observation episodes. Teacher ratings were most positive for direct teacher support (M = 3.76, SD = 0.64), inclusive climate (M = 3.60, SD = 0.78), and participation opportunities (M = 3.59, SD = 0.68), while coordination (M = 3.16, SD = 0.66), school support (M = 3.22, SD = 0.79), and accessibility (M = 3.31, SD = 0.75) were more cautiously rated. Student voice and observation showed that opportunity became meaningful participation only when students received a consequential role, their contribution was recognized, and support preserved a meaningful next move. Accessibility was event-specific rather than simply present or absent, and well-intentioned support sometimes displaced student agency. Divergence between adult reports and student experience therefore revealed a gap between provision and realization rather than simple measurement error. From the integrated findings, we propose a provisional Role–Recognition–Agency (RRA) lens and the Participation Realization Gap to explain how available opportunities become, or fail to become, experienced inclusion. The study argues that inclusion should be evaluated through the quality and function of participation, not placement or support presence alone.